EXPLANATION 2.1: THE RENAISSANCE: INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION

The Renaissance, a period in art history that, in music, spans from approximately 1420 to 1600. It is characterized by the development of commerce, leading to the rise of the bourgeoisie to significant positions due to the economic power they acquire. Additionally, there is a shift in the balance of power, with feudal lords facing off against kings who form alliances with the bourgeoisie. Moreover, city-states emerge, and vigorous monarchies are established that unify territories.

 

2. IMPORTANT DATES

Some important dates such as the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, the invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in 1450, the first music publications by Ottaviano Petrucci in 1455, and the arrival in America by Columbus in 1492 mark the 15th century.

 

3. THE MUSICIAN IN SOCIETY. THE PATRONS

During the Renaissance, there is a revaluation of the classical culture of ancient Greece, and in the musical sphere, medieval poetry by Francesco Petrarch is studied and admired to be set to music. Musicians mainly depend on patrons, who can be kings, nobles, or important figures in the ecclesiastical sphere such as popes and cardinals. These patrons increase their prestige by having the best musicians in their courts, who work both in composing music for social events and in creating works for churches and chapels.

 

4. VOCAL POLYPHONY

Renaissance music is characterized by being essentially polyphonic, and the basic model is vocal a cappella music. During this period, counterpoint develops, which refers to the relationship between the different melodies (called voices) of a composition. Additionally, it is in this era that autonomous instrumental music begins to take shape, which will subsequently consolidate in the Baroque period.

 

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS FOR TEXT 2.1

1. What dates span the beginning and end of the Renaissance?

2. Why does the bourgeoisie rise to significant positions?

3. Write down 2 important dates from this period and the event they relate to.

4. Why is Petrucci important in the history of music?

5. What is revalued in this period and which poet is important?

6. What is a patron, and who specifically were the patrons of the Renaissance?

7. What roles did musicians have in the court of a powerful individual?

8. What is the basic model of music in the Renaissance?

9. What is counterpoint?

10. What begins to take shape in this period and is consolidated in the Baroque?

EXPLANATION 2.2: THE FRANCO-FLEMISH SCHOOL

 

1. THE FRANCO-FLEMISH SCHOOL

In the court of Burgundy, which encompassed what is now known as Holland, Belgium, and northeastern France, the Dukes of Burgundy, vassals of the King of France, maintained a prominent musical chapel. This chapel, renowned for its composers, choirs for religious services, and minstrels (musician-servants), featured a variety of instrumentalists, including trumpeters, drummers, harpists, lute players, and vihuelists.

 

The musical chapels of the Dukes, especially during the reigns of Philip the Good (1419-1467) and Charles the Bold (until 1477), were considered the finest in Europe, attracting musicians of diverse nationalities. The court of Burgundy emerged as a prominent cultural center. These composers are known as the Franco-Flemish or Burgundian School.

The composers of this school, although some worked in Italy or other countries, are characterized by their compositions primarily of masses and motets. Their distinctive style utilizes counterpoint, dense textures, and gentle rhythms, where the richness of polyphony prevails over structural clarity.

 

It was not until the sixteenth century that the hegemony of these Northern composers was challenged with the emergence of figures like Giovanni da Palestrina in Italy and other styles, such as the Spanish school.

 

2. PERIODS OF THE FRANCO-FLEMISH SCHOOL

There are 5 periods:

1420-1460 The first generation of composers includes Dunstable, Dufay, and Binchois.

They created masses, motets, and Burgundian chansons, French poems set to polyphonic music, reflecting the refined lifestyle of the court. Musically, they use fixed forms: rondeau, ballade, and virelai, although the last two tend to disappear. It is the first phase of the Franco-Flemish school.

 

1460-1490 The second generation includes Dufay, Busnois, and Ockeghem, among others.

They stood out for their technical virtuosity in counterpoint, introducing new techniques such as the canon and various contrapuntal derivations (inversion, augmentation).

 

1490-1520 The third generation features composers such as Obrecht, Isaac, Mouton, and the most important, Josquin Des Prez.

Josquin emphasized the comprehensibility of the text in his works through proper accentuation. Material from chansons was used, modified through imitations or other processes.

 

1520-1560 The fourth generation, with figures like Gombert, Clemens non papa, Janequin, and Willaert.

They experimented with text pronunciation and musical structure, preferring motets with 5 or 6 voices and focusing on imitation.

 

1560-1600 The fifth generation includes De Monte and Lasso as primary exponents.

The latter is undoubtedly the most important with over 700 motets. Lasso uses homophonic counterpoint mixed with contrapuntal texture and introduces madrigalisms - ornaments with melodies that evoke the text: rising notes (in words like "heaven"), 2 or 3 notes with regular rhythm (evoking the murmur of water), etc.

 

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS FOR TEXT 2.2:

1. What countries occupy what was Burgundy in the 15th century today?

2. What purpose did the Dukes of Burgundy have a musical chapel for?

3. What instrumentalists did the Burgundian chapel have?

4. What is a minstrel?

5. What are the two names by which the Northern musicians of this period are known?

6. What are the two most used religious musical forms in the Renaissance?

7. What are the 3 most notable musical characteristics of the style used by Franco-Flemish composers?

8. In Franco-Flemish music, which musical aspect is more important, form or polyphony?

9. For what reason does the importance of Northern composers begin to decline?

10. Name a composer from each generation, including the most important from the 3rd and 5th.

EXPLANATION 2.3: THE MADRIGAL

 

1. THE MADRIGAL

The madrigal is a secular musical form that originated in Italy. Thanks to it, this country becomes for the first time the musical center of European music. The rise of this form is related to the valorization of Petrarch's poetry (14th century). In the madrigal, the text-music relationship is very important since it is essentially polyphonically musicalized poetry. The music illustrates the meaning of the words through what are called madrigalisms. The form of the madrigal is sectional, like the motet, where the voices imitate each other. The style is contrapuntal. The medieval madrigals of the 14th century had a stanzaic form and do not resemble the Renaissance madrigal, which is more similar to the motet as it is composed of imitative sections. It is the most used form due to the possibilities it offers for using counterpoint.

 

2. MADRIGALISMS

These are sound effects, such as clucking, bell tolls, onomatopoeias, sounds that imitate the clamor of battles, etc., but they are also of another type, such as a precise sound in specific words that reflect a visual effect in the score. For example, in the word "heaven," the melody rises, or in "hell," the melody descends.

 

3. PERIODS

Several periods are distinguished in the use of the Renaissance madrigal that make up its formal evolution:

 

First period: primitive madrigal, around 1530.

Composers: Bernardo Pisano, Philippe Verdelot, Jacob Arcadelt, Costanzo Festa.

The style is vertical (homophonic), with a predominance of the upper voice, as in the frottola.

 

Second period: "classic" madrigal from 1550 to 1580.

Composers: Orlando di Lasso, Pier Luigi da Palestrina, Cipriano da Rore, Philippe de Monte, Clement Janequin.

It is the period of splendor of the madrigal, with completely polyphonic writing; with the use of madrigalisms and visual effects in the score (5 hollow notes = 5 pearls; darkening of the score = nightfall).

 

Third period: 1580-1620.

Composers: Carlo Gesualdo, Luca Marenzio.

It delves into the Baroque (1600). The voices become polarized, tends to be homophonic, madrigalisms increase, and the music becomes more expressive with more dissonances.

 

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS FOR TEXT 2.3

1. What genre does the madrigal belong to and in what country does it originate?

2. Why is the madrigal related to a poet from the 14th century and which poet was it?

3. What does the madrigal musicalize and what does its music illustrate?

4. How is a madrigal similar to a motet?

5. What style does a madrigal have?

6. Why is the madrigal a widely used form in the Renaissance?

7. What is a madrigalism? Give two examples.

8. What does a madrigal from 1530 resemble?

9. What is the most mature period of the madrigal and how was its writing?

10. In a madrigal by Gesualdo, what two aspects are more used than in madrigals from previous periods?

EXPLANATION 2.4: THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

 1. INTRODUCTION

The most significant developments in secular music are the creation of the frottola and the development of the madrigal, while in religious music, it is the use of "spezzati" choirs (choirs placed in various parts of the church) as well as the ideas of the Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent), especially present in the music of Giovanni da Palestrina. These ideas aimed to ensure that the music was understandable in its texts, without parodies or sensual aspects, and that it brought God closer to those who listened.

 

2. THE FROTTOLA

The frottola is a polyphonic composition, in Italian. The texts cover various themes (amatory, satirical, mythological, humorous). The rhythm is dance-like, and the upper voice always predominates, so much so that the other voices were usually played by instruments (especially the lute). They were generally written for 4 voices, with predominant homophony (same rhythm in all voices). It originates from aristocratic circles and is a precursor to the madrigal. Its structure is stanza with a refrain, which is repeated between stanzas. The main composers of frottola are Bartolomeo Tromboncino and Marchetto Cara. The areas where they worked were Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino.

 

3. THE LAUDA

The lauda is the religious counterpart of the frottola. The texts are religious and are in Italian or Latin. They were sung in semi-public devotional meetings, probably a cappella or with instruments accompanying the other 3 voices. Musically, they had the same characteristics as the frottola. The texts were very understandable and that is why they were very popular during the Counter-Reformation. Some Franco-Flemish composers, such as Josquin, used laudes themes for their motets.

 

4. RELIGIOUS MUSIC: VENETIAN SCHOOL AND ROMAN SCHOOL

VENICE AND POLYCHORALITY

The 16th century is distinguished by magnificent chapels. In Venice, the artistic center is the Cathedral of St. Mark. The most notable musicians there were Adrian Willaert and the Gabrielis (Andrea and his nephew Giovanni). Venetian music, texturally, is more homophonic than contrapuntal, highlighting the use of several choirs at the same time (polychorality).

• Adrian Willaert, of Flemish origin, used divided choirs, called "spezzatti," which alternate as question-response.
• Andrea Gabrieli frequently used homophony (same rhythm in all voices).
• Giovanni Gabrieli introduced a choir of instruments to the vocal choir. This latter composer delves into the Baroque.

ROME AND THE IDEAS OF THE COUNCIL OF TRENT

In Rome, the figure of Giovanni da Palestrina stands out, a composer who used all techniques of polyphonic composition. His music is considered the most perfect expression of the ecclesiastical style. He is linked to the musical ideas of the Counter-Reformation of the Council of Trent, which demanded the comprehensibility of the texts within polyphonic composition. To achieve this, madrigalisms had to be avoided, and profane cantus firmus or those derived from parody had to be suppressed. Palestrina perfectly ensured that the texts were understood by using clear textures and fluid melodies whose text was well pronounced.

Other composers of the Roman school were Orlando di Lasso and the Spanish Tomás Luis de Victoria, who was also an excellent organist.

 

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS FOR TEXT 2.4

1. What are the two secular musical forms that develop in Italy?

2. What ideas of the Counter-Reformation are important in musical aspect?

3. What is a frottola and what are its texts about?

4. How is the rhythm and the upper voice of a frottola?

5. What is the structure of the frottola and how many voices did it have?

6. Why is the lauda the religious counterpart of the frottola and why was it so popular?

7. Texturally, how is Venetian music, and what does it emphasize?

8. Name one musical aspect of each composer from the Cathedral of St. Mark.

9. What was the fundamental idea of the Council of Trent, and what did Palestrina do to adapt to this demand?

10. Who were the other two most important composers of the Roman school?

EXPLANATION 2.5: MUSIC IN 15TH AND 16TH CENTURY SPAIN

 

1. 15TH CENTURY: MUSIC UNDER THE CATHOLIC MONARCHS

It's a period of great musical flourishing. Royal or noble musical chapels are created, such as those of the Catholic Monarchs and the Dukes of Alba. The court of the Catholic Monarchs is counted as one of the greatest courts of scientific, artistic, and humanistic renown. The Spanish Golden Age of music begins here, laying the groundwork for what will be the Golden Age of Spanish art. The main composers are:

• Juan de Anchieta: Chaplain and singer for the Catholic Monarchs. Only 16 songs are preserved, including a Mass of L'homme armé. He died in 1523.
• Francisco de Peñalosa: He worked as a singer and chaplain for Ferdinand the Catholic. Composer of religious music and the most similar to the Franco-Flemish style. Among his works is a Mass of L'homme armé. He died in 1528.
• Juan del Encina: He worked for the Duke of Alba, Pope Alexander VI, and Julius II. His production is known for 61 works to entertain courtly environments. Most of his work is secular. He died in 1529.
• Luis de Milán: He worked for John III in Portugal and Ferdinand of Aragon in Spain. He composed works for vihuela using tablature as a notation system. He published the book "El Maestro," where he explains the tablature system. He likely died after 1561.

2. 16TH CENTURY: INTERMEDIATE PERIOD. CHARLES I. PHILIP II

From the death of Isabella the Catholic in 1504 and the ascension to the throne of Charles I, twelve years pass in which the courtly musical flourishing declines. Upon ascending the throne, Charles I (Charles V of Germany) brings back the splendor of Franco-Flemish music to the Spanish court. Notable composers during his reign include Gombert and Créquillon.

With Philip II, polyphony in Spain continues to develop, although musical life is especially in the church. Cathedrals abound with their musical chapels competing for the best masters. Famous polyphonists include Mateo Flecha "the Elder," Diego Ortiz, and Cristóbal de Morales. Later, Mateo Flecha "the Younger" (nephew of "the Elder"), the brothers Pedro Guerrero and Francisco Guerrero, and finally, the most important of all, Tomás Luis de Victoria, stand out.

 

3. MUSICAL CHAPELS

The musical chapel was a space in the temple where musical rehearsals were held. It consisted of children and adults (about 20 or 30) with musical knowledge under the direction of a chapel master. They sang vocal polyphonic music and had instruments and an organ. Chapels were of royalty, courts, churches, or cathedrals. The latter were very important in Spain, so much so that they had their own laws or statutes to teach, educate children (called "seises"), and produce musical works. Furthermore, being self-sufficient, they isolated themselves from foreign influences or other chapels.

 

4. POLYPHONIC MUSICAL FORMS

• The Villancico: A polyphonic composition, lyrical in nature (poetry), similar to the Italian frottola, meaning the main melody is in the upper voice. Among its characteristics, they are stanzaic with a refrain structure that is typically aBccaB. They are technically simple and tend towards syllabism to ensure the text is well understood. They are vertical, meaning they use homophony (same rhythm in the voices). They are grouped in songbooks like the Cancionero de Palacio and the Cancionero de la Colombina. Juan del Encina is the main composer of villancicos.

• The Romance: A narrative in nature, with secular themes. They consist of a single musical section. They are usually sad and calm, based on ancient poetic romances of popular origin. The Cancionero de Palacio contains 40 romances, some about the Reconquest of Granada.

• The Ensalada: Consists of a series of different genres combined in a single work, where religious and secular elements or solo melodies and imitative sections are mixed. Mateo Flecha the Elder was one of the composers of famous "ensaladas."

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS FOR TEXT 2.5

1. What musical institutions were created in the 15th century?
2. Where does the Spanish Golden Age of music begin and which composers are part of it?
3. How many songs of Anchieta are preserved and what Mass did he compose?
4. From which country or countries did the composers in the court of Charles I come from?
5. What musical genre predominates during the reign of Philip II?
6. Name one composer from each generation of polyphonists during Philip II's reign.
7. What members did a musical chapel typically have and who were they?
8. Why is Juan del Encina the main composer of villancicos?
9. What genre is narrative in nature and what character do they usually have?
10. What is an "ensalada," and what composer stands out in this genre?

EXPLANATION 2.6: POLYPHONIC MUSIC IN ENGLAND

 

1. 15TH CENTURY

After the War of the Roses (1455-1485), under the reign of Henry VII (d.1509), music in England experiences a revival. Most polyphonic music from the late 15th and early 16th centuries is sacred (masses, magnificats, and antiphons). Franco-Flemish music, with its imitative counterpoint, did not influence England until around 1510. The three main characteristics are:

• Non-imitative polyphony and preference for a full sound with 5 or 6 voices, compared to the continental music with 4 voices in an imitative style.
• Contrasts are made with the texture of all 5 voices at once in some passages and fewer voices in other sections.
• Long melismas of great beauty and expressiveness, usually at the ends of motet sections. Some composers include Richard Hygons, William Horwood, and Gilbert Banester, whose works are found in the Eton Manuscript.

2. 16TH CENTURY

In this period, the Anglican religion is adopted in England in 1534 with Henry VIII, making English the language of religious music. The technique of imitative counterpoint is adopted, but slowly, being used in psalms and motets around 1540. The works of this period are characterized by two styles:

• Imitation, cantus firmus technique (known melody), and voice crossings. Notable composers include John Browne, Richard Davy, and Walter Lambe.

• A more continental sound, imitative and without cantus firmus techniques. Notable composers include William Cornysh the Younger in secular music and motets, and Robert Fayrfax in sacred music.

• John Taverner (d.1545) is the most important composer of the first half of the 16th century. His masses and magnificats in the English florid style are notable, typical of the first quarter of the 16th century, in Latin and in a homophonic style.

• The second half of the century corresponds to the Elizabethan period (Elizabeth I), England's Golden Age. Thomas Tallis (d.1585) is a prominent composer exclusively of religious music, bridging the styles of the early and late 16th centuries. His compositions include masses, antiphons, hymns, anthems, and lamentations, both for the Catholic and Anglican churches, in Latin and English. His compositions exhibit interconnected melodies with great naturalness. William Byrd, mixing Flemish music with Italian taste, composed services and anthems equivalent to mass and motet respectively.

3. THE MADRIGAL

Italian madrigals were translated into English, which led to the flourishing of English madrigals from the late 16th to the early 17th centuries.

• Thomas Morley (d.1602) composed light-hearted madrigals, in a homophonic style with the leading voice in the soprano, similar to Italian works (ballettos and canzonettas). They are divided into well-marked sections by cadences and sometimes contain a refrain that sings the repetitions of the syllables fa-la-la.
• Other composers include Thomas Weelkes, John Bartlett, and John Wilbye, with Wilbye being one of the most important. They are characterized by the delicacy and care of the composition for the voices in relation to the text and by not fragmenting the composition due to text demands.

4. SONGS FOR VOICE AND LUTE and CONSORTS

The splendor of songs with the lute coincides with the decline of the madrigal, beginning in the 17th century. John Dowland (d.1626) and Thomas Campion (d.1620) composed "ayrs" ("airs") where the quality of the poetry surpasses that of madrigals. The melodies and declamation of the text are subtle and sensitive; the lute, which accompanies and is subordinate to the voice, maintains great melodic independence.

• Mid-16th century saw the popularity of songs for groups of instruments of the same family, called consorts, with William Byrd composing for them.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS FOR TEXT 2.6

1. What type of music is composed at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century?
2. How is the polyphony of the 15th century and how are the contrasts made?
3. What is the Eton Manuscript?
4. Which king adopts the Anglican religion and in what year?
5. What compositional technique is used in 1540?
6. Name 3 composers from the first half of the 16th century with a continental sound.
7. What is the Elizabethan period called, and which two composers stand out?
8. What did Tallis and Byrd compose?
9. How were Morley's and Wilbye's madrigals?
10. What are "consorts," and who composed for them?